Contents
1. General BACKGROUND :
Energy Transmission. Hierarchical AC Transmission voltages levels. Tasks. Choice. Applications. EHV-AC transmission. Configuration, Engineering Features, Rated voltages, Number of Circuits, Intermediate Substations, Compensation of Reactive power. HVDC systems. Applications & Types, Bipolar, Back-to-Back, Multi-Terminal HVDC. Criterion of Choice. Limitations, Configuration, Equipment in HVDC Substations, HVDC Cable transmission. Interconnected AC Networks. Voltage control and frequency control. Power flow in AC line and in HVDC line. AC and HVDC. Interconnections. EHV-AC versus HVDC. Economic Comparison. Prospects of HVDC. Transmission Planning. Communication in Transmission Network. Scope of Subject. Summary and Questions.
HVDC Transmission :
2. HVDC POWER FLOW :
Subscripts and Symbols. Thyristor principle and control. Power conversion principle. Direct Voltage Ud1 and Ud2. Power at Rectifier-end Pd1. Power at Inverter-end Pd2. Power Loss in DC system. Power in middle of HVDC line. Power at sending end. Power at receiving end. General equations. Solved Numerical Examples on Pd and Ud. Summary and Questions.
3. STEADY STATE UD/ID CHARACTERISTIC :
Functional requirements. AC and DC Quantities. Steady state Ud/Id Characteristics. Principle of Stable Operation. Intersection of Rectifier and Inverter Characteristics. Margin Control. Setting of rectifier Control and Inverter Control. Reversal of HVDC power flow. Operating Modes of Bipolar 2 T HVDC System. Starting and Loading and Stopping of HVDC Power Flow. Summary.
4. CONVERTER CONNECTIONS, RECTIFIER AND INVERTER WAVEFORMS :
Rectifier Bridge Connections and waveforms on AC and DC side. Six Pulse Bridge (Graetz Bridge). 12-Pulse Bridge. Phase control and Delay Angle. Effect of phase control on DC Voltage. Valve Voltage. Inversion. Connections of Converter Bridge. Commutating Reactance. Angle of Overlap Extinction Angle. Significance of Delay Angle and Extinction Angle. Control of DC Voltage. Configuration of Bipolar 2T HVDC System, Valves and Converters. Summary and Questions.
5. EQUATIONS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON
AC AND DC SIDE :
Assumptions. Average and RMS Value. Symbols. Rectifier No load Voltage Equation with Zero Delay Angle and with Delay Angle. Control DC Voltage. Voltage Eqn. for S-unit Converter. Rectifier Voltage with a and u. Current on primary and secondary sides. Fundamental component of Current. Rating of Converter Transformer. Equivalent Circuit of Rectifier. Characteristics of Rectifier. Equation of Inverter Equivalent Circuit of Inverter. Complete Equivalent Circuit of HVDC System. Terms and Definitions. Rectifier and Inverter Equations. Minimum Extinction Angle. Practical Significance of Equations Summary and Questions.
6. FUNDAMENTAL OF HARMONICS AND NETWORK HARMONIC IMPEDANCE :
Fourier Analysis. Characteristic Harmonics. Terms and definitions. Fourier Series. Characteristics AC Current Harmonics. Non-characteristic AC Current Harmonics. Harmful effects. Interaction with AC Network. Adequateness of AC Harmonic Filters. Summary and Questions.
7. HARMONIC FILTERS :
Terms and definitions. Filters, Surge Suppressors, Damping Circuits. Resonance. Quality Factor. Bandwidth. Shunt filters. Series Filters. Acceptable Level of Harmonics. Configuration of AC Filters. Design of AC Filters. Design of single frequency tuned filters. Double frequency Tuned Filters. High pass filter. Cost considerations of AC Harmonic Filters. Ratings of AC Capacitors in Tuned Branch. Harmonics in DC Voltage. DC Harmonic Filters. Summary and Questions.
8. REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION IN HVDC SUBSTATIONS :
Reactive power requirements of HVDC Converters, P. Q. S, Reactive power Q required by converter, and HVDC Substation. Reactive power equations. Effect of Delay angle and Extinction angle. Short Circuit Ratio (SCR). Impedance of AC Network. Equivalent Short Circuit Ratio. SCR in Planning of HVDC. Transient Voltage Rise. Summary and Questions.
9. Earth ELECTRODE AND EARTH RETURN :
Terms and definitions. Objectives. Location and Configuration of Earth electrode. Material of Anode. Sea electrode. Current density. Resistance of Earth Electrode. Earth resistance of Straight Electrode. Troubles by Earth currents and remedial measure. Electrode line. Summary and Questions.
10. CONFIGURATION AND LAYOUT OF HVDC
TERMINAL :
Configuration of terminal station. Layout of a Bipolar Terminal Station. Concept behind layout. Choice of Converter Connections. Valve hall and Control Building. Converter Valves. HVDC Yard. Rihand Delhi Bipolar HVDC System. Back to Back HVDC Coupling Station. Summary and Questions.
11. HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER AND PARALLEL TAP CIRCUIT BREAKER :
Application of MRTB and Parallel Tap. Interruption of DC Currents of high switching energy. Commutation principle. Commutation circuit. Switching Energy Main Circuit Breaker. Metallic Return Transfer Breaker (MRTB). Types of HVDC Circuit Breakers A, B. Capability and Characteristics of HVDC Breaker. Switching Times. Short Circuit Ratio. Effective Short Circuit Ratio. Parallel tapping of HVDC Line. Summary and Questions.
12. MULTI-TERMINAL HVDC SYSTEMS :
Two pole HVDC with earth return, Substation poles in different locations. MTDC System with series connected convertors. MTDC System with parallel connected convertors. Control of Parallel connected HVDBC System. Reversal of power in a terminal of HVDC System. Three TDC System with parallel tapping. Two pole reversal in 3 TDC System. HVDC Breakers in MTDC System. Applications of MTDC Systems. Worlds First Commercial 3 TDC System. World's First 5 TDC System. Configuration and Type of HVDC System. Summary and Questions.
13. PROTECTIVE ZONES AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS IN HVDC SUBSTATIONS :
Faults in HVDC Systems. Fault clearing of DC Transmission line. Protective zones in HVDC Systems. Protection systems in HVDC Substation. HVDC line pole protection, Clearing of line faults and re-energising of line. Abnormal operating conditions in convertor valves. Converter Faults and protection systems. Convertor transformer protection. AC filter protection. Protection of AC Busbars and AC Yard equipment. Summary and Questions.
14. HVDC SYSTEM CONTROL :
Control requirements. Alternative principles of HVDC Control. Terms and definitions. Hierarchical levels of HVDC Control : HVDC System Control-HVDC Master Control-Substation Control-Pole Control-Converter Control-Monitoring. Hybrid Control. Schematic Diagram of current control in two terminals and telecommunication channel. Control loop current control system. Convertor Unit tap changer control. Valve unit firing control. Terms and definitions control. Equidistant firing control. Convertor firing control reviewed commutation margin control. Triggering Logic in valve firing control. Transition between current control and commutation margin control. Station control in lead station and trail station. Power order setting. Power flow through synchronous HVDC link. Power flow through interconnection by non-synchronous HVDC link, Summary and Questions.
15. AC NETWORK FREQUENCY CONTROL AND STABILISATION BY HVDC DAMPING CONTROL AND POWER MODULATION :
Load frequency relation in AC Network. Power deficit and frequency deviation. Frequency control in AC Networks. Power flow through AC Interconnection, Stability limit. Power swing through AC Tie line. Interconnection between three AC Networks. Frequency Deviation of AC network. Frequency Control (Steady State) by HVDC power control. Block diagram of control system. Stabilisation or Damping of AC Network Oscillations. Transient Stability. Transient Instability. Dynamic Instability. Stabilising effect of HVDC Control Damping of Oscillations; Modulation singal Asynchronous HVDC link, Stabilisation of AC line. Control system for Frequency control and damping control. Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) and its Damping. Harmonic Instability. Saturation of Convertor Transformer Core. Special control features in Rihand Delhi HVDC System. Voltage Stability of AC Network and reactive Power Compensation in HVDC Substation. Summary and Questions.
16. INSULATION COORDINATION AND SURGE ARRESTER PROTECTION IN HVDC AND EHV AC SUBSTATIONS :
Overview. Overvoltages in HVDC and EHV AC Systems. Locations of Surge Arresters. Various types of Overvolt-ages and their Time Duration Protection against various types of overvoltages. Protective Levels of Surge Arresters and Insulation Coordination. Overvoltage factors. Lightning Surges, Basic Impulse Insulation Level. Protective Angle and Zone of Protection. Switching Surges. Surge Suppressors. Temporary power frequency over-voltages. Overvoltage Relay for Protection. Surge Arresters in AC and HVDC Yard. Types of Surge Arresters. Ratings, Classification of Surge Arrester based on Applications. Technical particulars of EHV AC ZnO Arrester. Installation. Surge Arresters in HVDC Substations on DC Side. Significance of Clearances and Creepage Distances. Definitions : Creepage and Clearances. Insulation Coordination of AC Substations. Summary and Questions.
17. OVERVOLTAGES AND SURGE ARRESTER
PROTECTION IN HVDC SUBSTATIONS :
Difference between Insulation Coordination-EHV AC and HVDC. Switching Overvoltages and Switching Energy. Overvoltages on AC Side and DC Side. Surge Arrester Protection Scheme. Surge Arrester Protection of Convertor and DC Yard. Insulation Coordination and Protective Margins. Summary and Questions.
18. INSULATION REQUIREMENT OF EHV-AC AND HVDC EQUIPMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINES :
Classification : Self restoring and Non-self restoring insulation. Insulation Design Aspects. Stresses on Insulation. Tests. Causes of Flashover through Air and Gases. Insulation Withstand Characteristics of Air Gaps. Leakage Distance or Creepage Distance of AC Insulators. Leakage Distance or Creepage Distance of DC Insulators Line Insulator Design with respect to Creepage Distance. Voltage Grading Rings (Collector Rings) to reduce Pollution. Grease or Petroleum Jelly to reduce flashovers. Electrolytic Action affecting pin type DC Insulators. Effect of Wetting and contamination on leakage currents. Clearances (Insulation Distance) for AC and HVDC. Clearances in HVDC Substations. Choice of Clearance based on impulse withstand level. Summary and Questions.
19. WAVEFORM DISTORTION AND TELEPHONE INFLUENCE FACTORS :
Significance of Waveform Distortion and Telephone Interference. Indices for evaluating Waveform Distortion. Individual Harmonic Distortion Dn. Arithmatic Sum (Dsum). Root Sum Square (RSS). Telephone Influence Factor (TIP). IT Product kV. T Product. Problem of TIF. Meaning of C-Message Weightings. Telephonic Interference caused by Harmonics. Electric and Magnetic Coupling between Power Line and Telephone Lines. Factors influencing Electro-magnetic Coupling. Steps to recduce Telephonic Interference. Summary and Questions
20. CONVERTER TRANSFORMERS :
Transportation of Converter Transformers. Alternatives connections in Main Circuit. Construction and Installation. MVA Rating of Converter Transformers. Rated Quantities of Convertor Transformers Withstand strength, Noise Levels, Windings. On-Load Tap Changer. Bushings, Creepage. Insulation of Valve winding. Polarity Reversal. Stresses on Insulation of Convertor Transformers. Standard Specifications of Convertor Transformers. Type Tests and Routine Tests of Convertor Transformers. Summary and Questions.
21. DC SMOOTHING REACTORS :
Functions. Inductance and Smoothing Effect. Description of an Oil Immersed Smoothing Reactor. Inductance of a Smoothing Reactor. Magnetic Circuit of a Smoothing Reactor. Bushings. Cooling System OFAF Rated Quantities of Oil Insulated Smoothing Reactor. Type Tests and Routine Tests. Air Cored/Dry Smoothing Reactors Surge Arrester Protection of Smoothing Reactor. Summary and Questions.
22. Mercury ARC VALVES :
Mercury-arc Multi-gap valves. Definitions. Construction. Grid control. Current Divider. Degassing. Abnormal conditions : Misfire, Fire-through Back fire. By-pass Valves. Questions.
23. THYRISTORS, QUADRI-VALVES, TRIGGERING AND COOLING SYSTEM :
Architecture of Bridge Convertor Valves. Valve Hall and Qradruple Valves. Triggering of Thyristors and Optical Signals. Thyristor modules and snubber. Components of Valve Module and Snubber. Thyristor details. Thyristor mounting and Heat sinks. Cooling Systems. Protection of Thyristor Valves. Rated Quantities. Summary and Questions.
24. DIELECTRIC TESTS, TYPE TESTS AND ROUTINE TESTS :
Type Tests and Routine Tests. Dielectric Tests of HVDC Equipment Power Frequency Voltage Withstand Tests. Impulse Voltage withstand Tests. Application of Test Voltage. Special Dielectric Tests on HVDC Equipment. Special Dielectric Tests on Converter Transformer. Dielectric Tests on DC Smoothing Reactor. Dielectric Tests on Thyristor Valve. Tests on ZnO Arresters. Summary and Questions.
25. TESTING OF THYRISTOR VALVES :
Categories of Tests. Parts of Thyristor Valve for Test. Type Tests. List of tests on Valves, Module and Valve Base. Insulation Tests on Valve Base. Voltage Tests between Valve Terminals. Valve AC Voltage Tests. Valve Impulse Voltage Tests. Periodic Firing and Extinction Tests. Non Periodic Firing Tests. Intermittant Direct Current Tests.
Fault Current Tests. Valve Unit Insensitivity Test to EMI. Checking of Auxiliaries. Temperature Rise Tests. Interpretation of Type Test Results. Determination of Valve Losses. List of Production Tests and Purpose of Tests. Summary and Questions
26. DCCT AND DCVT IN HVDC SUBSTATIONS :
DC Voltage Measuring System. DC Current Measuring System. Summary
27. EHV AC and HVDC System Studies, Models, HVDC Simulator, Digital Computer and TNA :
Objectives of System Studies. List of System Studies. Means of System Studies. Transient Network Analyzer. HVDC Simulator. Need of HVDC Simulator. Different Types of System Studies on HVDC Simulator. Mathematical Models. Digital Computer for System Studies. Digital Computer Analysis of HVDC Systems. Summary and Questions.
28. COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING (CAE) IN POWER SYSTEMS :
Objectives. Software Programs in Power System Design. Basic Power System Studies. Applications of CAE in Transmission Project Studies. Summary and Questions.
29. PROJECT MANAGEMENT. INSTALLATION, TESTING AND COMMISSIONING, MAINTENANCE :
Planning of Long Distance 2 Terminal HVDC Transmission Link. Substation Project Planning, L1 Bar Chart. Project Evaluation and Review technique (PERT). Training to Project Staff and Operating Staff. Preparation. Documentation. Receiving and Storage, Safety and Insurance Policy. Civil Activities. Installation (Erection). Testing and Commissioning of HVDC Substations and System. Site Testing. Equipment Tests. Subsystem Tests. Tests on Relays, Protection and Control Systems. Energization Tests. System Tests, Commissioning Tests and performance Tests. Observation and Trial, Handing Over. Safety Procedures for Site Work. Preventive Maintenance. Breakdown Maintenance versus Preventive Maintenance. Maintenance Zones in HVDC Substations. Skilled Personnel for Maintenance. Maintenance Schedules for Bipolar HVDC Sub-station. Installation and Maintenance of Overhead Transmission Line. Live-line Maintenance. Summary and Questions.
EHV-AC Transmission :
30. ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF EHV-AC TRANSMISSION AND TRANSMISSION PLANNING :
Electrical, Mechanical and Thermal Design Aspects. Engineering Aspects of EHV AC Transmission System. Transmission Planning and its Co-relation with Generation Planning, Distribution Planning. Why 400 kV AC was selected in India. Recent Advances. Summary and Questions
31. OVERHEAD LINE CONDUCTORS AND FITTINGS (EHV-AC AND HVDC) :
Corona. Bundled conductors, Subconductors and Spacers. Spacers. Stranded conductor. Corrosion protection, ACSR Conductors and Designation in Practice. Technical Data on Conductor Drum. Conductor Design. Energy loss in Conductor. Kelvin's Law on selection of economic-Cross-section. Vibrations of Conductors (Oscillation)-Aeolian Vibrations-Galloping-Subconductor Vibrations-Corona induced vibrations. Vibration Dampers. Testing of Conductors. Conductor Fittings. Conductor-Problems and remedial Measure. Summary and Questions.
32. LINE INSULATORS AND SUBSTATION INSULATOR :
Types of insulators, Terms and Definitions. String Insulators for Overhead HVDC and EHV AC lines. Cap and Pin Insulators. Constructional features of Cap and Pin Sting Insulators. Clevis and Tongue Unit. Materials : Porcelain, Malleable cast iron, Mild Steel forged Pin, Glass-fibre Core, Silicone Rubber Shed Synthetic Insulators. Long Rod (Long Stab) Insulators. Configuration of Cap and Pin tring Insulators. Corona Rings, Arcing Horns, Arcing Kings, Arc Runners. Post insulators for Substations. Solid Core insulators for substations. Hollow Insulators for Bushings and Enclosures. Bushings. Testing of Insulators. Summary and Questions.
33. TOWERS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES AND SUBSTATION STRUCTURES :
Selection of Towers. Types and Configurations of Towers. Types of Self supporting Lattice Towers, Semi flexible and Flexible Towers. Towers for HVDC lines. Foundations of Towers. Anchors. Soils. Summary and Questions.
34. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TOWERS (EHV-AC AND HVDC) :
Objectives of Design of Tower. Steps in Design. Load, Tension, Stress, Strain, Sag, Span, Length. Mechanical Loading and Stresses. Stress, Strain, Youngs Modulus. Minimum thickness. Slenderness Ratios. Wind pressures in India, Wind Pressures on Conductors and Tower. Transverse, Vertical and Longitudinal Loads. Permissible Stress. Fastners. Summary and Questions.
35. SAG TENSION CALCULATIONS (EHV-AC
AND HVDC) :
Factors affecting sag, Equations of Sag Tension Curve for Symmetrical Sag. Simplified Derivation of Sag Tension Equation for Equal Support Levels. Resultant vertical and horizontal loads. Sag for supports at different vertical levels. Location of Structures along line route. Sag Tension Charts for stringing of conductors. Summary and Questions
36. Tower DESIGN BASED ON SWITCHING
SURGE WITHSTAND :
Flashover characteristic of Air Clearances. Switching Impulses Withstand Strength of phase to Ground Air Gap. Switching Surge Strength of Tower and Insulator Strings. Design Procedure with respect to Switching Surge Strength of Tower. Conclusions of Switching Surge Flashover Tests on 500 kV Flexible V Shaped Towers. Conclusions from testing of 760 kV 3 phase Chinnette Towers. Switching Surge Withstand Strength of HVDC Towers. Summary and Questions.
37. TOWER AND LINE DESIGN BASED ON LIGHTNING STROKES :
Procedure of Tower and Line Design. Lightning Impulse Strength of Air Gaps and Gap Factors. Lightning and Switching Surge Withstand Level and Minimum Air Gaps in Tower Design. Voltage Stress across line insulation during Lightning Discharge through Tower. Surge Impedance of Ground wires and Tower. Coupling Factors. Tower Footing Resistance, Counter Poise. Angle of Protection by Ground Wires. Isokeraunic Levels (I) (Keraunic, Ceraunic). Number of Lightning Strokes per year per Square kilometer area, Number of Direct Strokes Intercepted by Line. Number of Lightning Tripouts per year Lightning Performance. Comparison of Predicted and Actual Performance. Summary and Questions.
38. ELECTROSTATIC FIELD AT GROUND LEVEL AND Biological Effects (EHV-AC AND HVDC) :
Basic principles and terms in Electromagnetic Field theory. Significance of Electric Field Intensity (Negative of Potential Gradient) at Ground Level. Electric Field Intensity of 3 phase AC line at ground level beneath the conductors and at the edge of ROW. Charging of Objects, Vehicles and Human Body. Biological Effects on Human Beings. Shock Effects of Electric Field. Contact Currents. Limiting Values of 50 Hz Contact Currents. Summary and Questions.
39. CORONA AND CORONA LOSSES (EHV-AC AND HVDC) :
Principle of Corona. Emperical Formulae for EC and Ecr. Terms and Definitions. Corona of AC Overhead Lines. Factors affecting Corona. Conclusion of Research on Bad Weather Corona. Corona Losses in AC Transmission. Variation in Corona Loss during one year. Factors affecting Corona Losses, Notations of Terms in Derivations. Critical Surface Gradient, Peek's Law, Critical Disruptive Voltage and Critical Electric Stress for Visual Corona. Corona Phenomenon with HVDC. Critical HVDC Voltage and Corona, Bipolar Corona Loss. Influence of Weather on DC Corona Loss. Summary and Questions.
40. Radio INTERFERENCE, TV INTERFERENCE AND AUDIBLE NOISE (EHV-AC & HVDC) RADIO INTERFERENCE :
Units of Measurement of RI, Generation of RI. Propagation and Attenuation of RI. Attenuation of RI Waves. Radio Interference Field Strength against Distance. RI Design Criterion for EHV AC Line. Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). Broadcast Signal Strength. RI Lateral Attenuation with Distance. RI at Edge of ROW. Minimising RI and TVI. Bundled Conductor for reducing Corona and RI. Evaluation of RI by Comparison Method & Semi Analytical Method.
TV Interference. Comparison Formula for TVI Calculation of AC Lines RI and TVI in HVDC Overhead Lines. Elimination of DC Harmonics. RI from Bipolar HVDC Line. Comparison of RI from HVDC line and EHV AC line TVI from HVDC Line.
Audible Noise (AN). Terms and definitions of Acoustics. Fundamentals of Sound. Measurement of AN and Weighting Curves. Attenuation of Sound Pressure Level, Acceptable Level of Audible Noise. Causes of AN in Substation and Transmission Line. Audible Noise in Transformers and Reactors. Audible Noise in Transmission Lines. Limits of AN. Transmission Line Design based on AN. Steps in Evaluating RN. Day and Night Equivalent of AN. Calculation and Estimated AN of Transmission Line. Sound Level of Transmission line. AN of HVDC line. Summary and Questions.
41. ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER FLOW,
VOLTAGE STABILITY :
Active power, reactive power and Complex power in AC System. Active Power and Reactive Power Through a short transmission line. Stability limits of AC transmission line. Voltage Stability. Summary and Questions
42. SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING, REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION AND FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION (FACT) :
Representation of a long transmission line. Surge impedance load (SIL), Natural load. Voltage profile along a long AC line. Shunt Compensation at intermediate points along the line. Symmetrical line. Compensation at intermediate compensating substation improves Power transfer ability. Effect of reactive power compensation on voltages. Reactive power requirement and voltage regulation. Series compensation by series capacitors for long lines. Power angle curves with series compensation. Configuration of a long EHV AC line. Oscillations in power angle, active and reactive power flow. Improvement in dynamic and transient stability by faster control of reactive power. Reactive power requirement and controllable AC line. Controllable series compensation. Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACT). Reactive power management in AC Networks Summary and Questions
43. VOLTAGE CONTROL IN AC NETWORKS, SVS, SSR :
Steady state and Dynamic Voltage Control. Permissible steady state voltage variation. Methods of Voltage Control. Excitation Control and Voltage Regulation of Generators. Tap-changing Transformers. Line drop compensation for Voltage control of transmission lines. Shunt reactors. Shunt capacitors. Series capacitors. Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR) in Series Compensated AC lines. Static VAr Source (SVS). Synchronous Condensers. Summary and Questions.
44. UNDERGROUND POWER CABLES, AND GAS INSULATED CABLES AND HVDC CABLES :
Need for underground power transmission and distribution. Limitation of Underground power transmission. Specific applications. Classification of Cables. Terms and Definitions. Construction of Solid cables. XLPE Cables. Pressurised Cable. Gas Pressure Cables. Oil filled pressurised cables. Selection of HV Cables. Technical Aspects. Rated Voltage, Highest Voltage and Insulation Level. Laying of Power Cables. SF6. Gas Insulated Cables (Busducts). HVDC Cables. Summary and Questions.
Equations & Solved Numerical Problems in Ac Transmission Systems :
45. PROCEDURES IN AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM CALCULATIONS :
Assumption in Network Calculations. Linearity. Superposition. Thevenin's Theorem. Single phase representation of Balanced 3 phase AC System. Per Unit method and percent method. Active and Passive Elements. Representation of Series and Shunt Elements, Z and Y. Real Power, Reactive Power, Apparent Power. Solved Numerical Examples.
46. REPRESENTATION AND Modelling OF AC TRANSMISSION LINES :
Model of a Short Line (< 85 km). Model of an AC Line with distributed parameters. Nominal and Nominal T Model of a Medium Line. Long Line Model with Equivalent T and Equivalent T form. ABCD Constants of a short line. Summary.
47. CALCULATIONS OF R. L. C CONSTANTS, REACTIVE POWER, CHARGING CURRENTS AND SURGE IMPEDANCE LOAD :
Symbols and Units in SI System. Hyperbolic Functions. Logarithm. Resistance Calculations. Inductance calculations. Reactive Power of Series Inductance and Series Compensation. Capacitance calculations. Cable Calculations. Solved Numerical examples.
48. PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS OF SHORT AND MEDIUM AC LINES :
Representation and Equations of Short Line. Percent voltage regulation. Losses and efficiency. ABCD Constants of Short Line. Representation and Equations of a Medium Line. Ferranti Effect. ABCD Constants of medium line nominal.
49. VERY LONG AC LINES. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT EQUATIONS. STANDING WAVES :
Phenomena associated with long AC line. Long AC Line and Notation. Analysis and Rigorous Solution. Surge Impedance. Propagation Constant Equations in Terms of Sinh x and Cosh x . ABCD constants of Long Line. Equivalent Circuit of Long AC line. Interpretation of Equations of Long Line. Standing Wave of Voltage and Current on Long AC Line. Length of Line in terms of angle 8. Charging Currents and Charging MVAr. Surge Impedance Loading. Tuned Transmission Line. Solved Numerical Examples Summary and Questions.
50. POWER EQUATIONS AND CIRCLE DIAGRAMS FOR AC LINES :
Complex power S. P and Q at sending end and receiving end. Equations of Power Flow through short line. Maximum power at Receiving end. Voltage Regulation. Power Circle Diagrams. Equations for Power Circle Diagrams of Long Lines. Sending end-power circle diagrams. Summary.
51. POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION. TELECONTROL OF TRANSMISSION NETWORKS AND SCADA :
Telecontrol. Carrier Communication. Radio Communication. Satellite Communication. Fibre optic communication in transmission. Communication Network between Load Control Centre, Generating Stations and Substations. Summary and Questions.
Distribution Systems :
52. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM :
Sub transmission and Distribution. Nominal Voltage Levels. Permissible Steady State Voltage Limits. Essential Parts Distribution Systems. Type of Supply Circuits. Type of Loads and Demand. Ratings and Characteristics of Loads. kW, kVA and Power Factor. Single Phase Loads and 3 Phase Loads. High Voltage Supply to Consumers Power Factor Correction, Power Factor Improvement. Normal MVA and Fault MVA. Voltage Profiles in Distribution System. Voltage Control in Distribution Systems. During Steady State Load Variation. Power Quality. Ensuring Power Quality. Distribution Transformers.
53. CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION OF DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS :
Circuit Configuration of Distribution System. Configurations of Sub-transmission Circuits. Configurations of Primary Distribution Systems. Underground Primary System. Secondary Distribution Systems.
54. PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS :
Protection of Distribution Systems. Over current protection, Earth Fault Protection and Short Circuit Protection. Fuses for Distribution Circuits. Devices and Protective Systems in Primary. Distribution System for Over current and Short Circuit Protection. Circuit Breaker controlled by Protection System. Auto Reclosers Automatic Sectionalizers for Isolation. Time Current Characteristics of Auto Recloser. Opening Operation. Over current Protection Coordination, Coordination Between Two Fuses in Series. Coordination Between Auto Recloser and Fuse. Circuit Breaker Fuse Coordination. Coordination Between Circuit Breaker and Auto Reclose. Protection against Lighting Surges. Automatic Reclosers and Automatic. Sectionalizers for Rural Distribution.
55. DISTRIBUTION AUTOMATION & CONTROL NETWORK SCADA :
Distribution & Power System Automation, Distribution Automation and Control (DAC). Integration of Control and Protection for High Voltage AC Transmission and Distribution System. Equipment to Automatic Control of Transmission. Network and Distribution System. Architecture and Subsystems of a Simple SCADA for a Plant. SCADA Functions at Various Hierarchical Levels. Distribution Automation Hierarchical Level in Distribution Automation and Control. Substation Automation and Control. Subsystems in Substations. Architecture of Distribution SCADA and DCA. Remote Switching and Telecontrol. Remote Metering.
56. LOAD MANAGEMENT :
Loads Control. Load Management. Terms and Definitions. Load Curves and Peak Load Problem. Base Load, Intermediate Load and Peak Load. Load Duration Curves. Type of Generating Plants for Base Loads, Intermeadiate Load, and Peak Load Supply. Load Management Techniques. End Use Partial Equipment Control from Distribution Control Center (EUC). Supply Side Management Opportunities.
57. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION :
Configuration and Features. Voltage Levels for Primary and Secondary Circuits. Rural Distribution Transformers and Connections. Low Power Factor and Voltage Regulation Problems. Engineering Aspects. Distribution System Hardware and Specifications - Single Line Diagram of Distribution Systems. Protection of Rural Distribution System - Rural Electrification in India. Power Factor Correction.
58. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM CALCULATIONS :
Load Survey and Mapping. Voltage Drop in 3 Phase AC Sub-transmission Lines. Location of Receiving Substation and Distribution. Substation and Rural Substations. Determination of Substation Transformer Rating. Calculation of Power Loss. Calculations of Short Circuit levels in Distribution System. Strength of Supply System and Short Circuit Ratio of Supply System. Nominal MVA rating of Distribution Substation Transformer Feeding Arc France Plant. Power Quality Factor.
Recent Advances, CC Converter, Voltage Stability.