Electronics Fundamentals and Applications

Book New Age International (P) Ltd. Bridge

The book is meant for the students pursuing a beginners' course in electronics. Current syllabi of basic electronics included in Physics (Honours/Major) curriculum of different universities and those offered in various Engineering and Technical Institutions have been consulted in preparing the material contained herein. In 23 chapters, the book deals with the Formation of energy bands in solids; Electron emission from Solid surfaces; properties of semiconductors; metal-semiconductor contacts; pn junction diodes; rectifiers; voltage multipliers; clipping and clamping circuits; bipolar junction transistors; basic voltage and power amplifiers; feedback in amplifiers; regulated power supplies; sinusoidal oscillators; multivibrators; modulation and demodulation; field-effect transistors; ICs; OP AMPs; active filters; special semiconductor Devices such as phototransistor, SCR, triac, diac, UJT, impatt diode, gunn diode, PIN diode, IGBT, etc.; digital circuits and systems; VLSI Technology and circuits; CRO; communication systems; television; radar; lasers; fibre optics and holography. Software packages for Circuit simulation, namely, Spice and PSpice have been included in an Appendix.

Fundamental principles and applications are discussed herein with explanatory diagrams in a clear and concise way. Physical aspects are emphasized; Mathematical details are given, when necessary Many of the problems, Review questions, and objective-type questions included in the book are taken from recent examination papers.

Professor D. Chattopadhyay obtained his Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees in Radio Physics and Electronics in 1972 and 1980, respectively, from the University of Calcutta. He was awarded the Mouat medal by the same university in 1985 on successful completion of the Premchand Raychand Studentship. He visited the Technical University in Trondheim, Norway as a Post Doctoral Fellow in 1973-74. He also visited the Max Planck Institute in Stuttgart, Germany, from time to time during 1980 and 1990 as a Guest Scientist. In 1991, he was invited as a Visiting Scientist to the International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy. His Research interest centres around Electronic Transport in Bulk and Low-Dimensional Semiconductor Structures. He has a number of publications in internationally reputed journals and has co-authored a few Books for the undergraduate and postgraduate students. At present, he is working as a professor in the Department of Radio Physics and Electronics, Calcutta University.

Professor P.C. Rakshit received his Ph.D. degree in Radio Physics and Electronics in 1978 from the Calcutta University. He worked as a lecturer in the Regional Engineering College, Durgapur during 1973-75 and in the Bengal Engineering College, Sibpore, Howrah during 1975-77. At present, he is a Professor at the Department of Radio Physics and Electronics, Calcutta University. He visited a few universities in U.K. and the ICTP, Trieste, Italy in 1988. His research interest includes Microwave Oscillators and Semiconductor Physics. He is a co-author of several textbooks for the undergraduate and postgraduate students of physics. He has a number of research papers in well-known journals.

Preface to the Tenth Edition
Preface to the Ninth Edition
Preface to the First Edition

Chap. I : BASIC IDEAS : ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS :
1. Introduction
2. Charged Particles
3. Atomic Energy Levels
4. Energy Bands in Crystals
5. Metal, Insulator, and Semiconductor
6. Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
7. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. II : Electron EMISSION FROM SOLIDS :
1. Work Function
2. Electron Emission
3. Thermionic Emission
4. Richardson-Dushman Equation
5. Space Charge
6. Directly and Indirectly Heated Cathodes
7. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. III : PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS :
1. Introduction
2. Intrinsic Semiconductors
3. Extrinsic Semiconductors
4. Position of Fermi Level
5. Current Flow in Semiconductors
6. Hall Effect
7. Diffusion
8. Lifetime of Minority Carriers
9. Thermistors and Photoconductors
10. Advantages of Semiconductor Devices
11. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. IV : Metal SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACTS :
1. Energy-band Diagrams
2. Depletion Region Characteristics
3. Schottky Effect
4. Current Transport
5. Ohmic Contact
6. Schottky Diode
7. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. V : SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION DIODES :
1. Introduction
2. p-n Junctions
3. The Unbiased p-n Junction
4. The Biased p-n Junction
5. Current-Voltage Characteristic of a p-n Junction
6. Special Diodes
7. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. VI : DIODE CIRCUITS :
1. Rectification
2. Dynamic Characteristic of a Diode
3. Rectifier Operation
4. Factors Determining Rectifier Performance
5. Filters
6. Full-Wave Rectifier with Filters
7. Voltage Multipliers
8. Clipping Circuits
9. Double Diode Clippers
10. Clamping Circuits
11. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. VII : JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS :
1. The Junction Transistor
2. Transistor Manufacturing Techniques
3. Mechanism of Transistor Action
4. A Transistor Amplifier
5. Current Components in a Transistor
6. Minority Carrier Concentration Profile
7. Modes of Transistor Operation
8. Static Characteristics of a Transistor
9. Experimental Arrangement for Studying Transistor Characteristics
10. Expressions for Currents
11. Some Transistor Terms
12. Transistor as a Switch
13. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. VIII : JUNCTION TRANSISTORS : BIASING AND AMPLIFICATION :
1. Operating Point and Graphical Analysis of Transistor Amplifiers
2. Input and Output Distortions
3. Transistor Biasing
4. Transistor as a Two-Port Device and its Hybrid Model
5. Determination of h-parameters from Transistor Characteristics
6. Conversion Formulas for h-parameters of Three Transistor Modes
7. Analysis of a Transistor Amplifier Employing h-parameters
8. Emitter Follower or Common-Collector Amplifier
9. Approximate Expressions
10. Properties of CE, CC, and CB Amplifiers
11. Darlington Connection
12. High Frequency Effects in Transistors
13. Noise in Transistors
14. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problem

Chap. IX : BASIC VOLTAGE AND POWER AMPLIFIERS :
1. Classification of Amplifiers
2. Cascading of Amplifiers
3. The RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier
4. Transformer - Coupled Transistor Amplifier
5. Power Amplifiers : Some General Remarks
6. Class A Power Amplifier
7. Transformer-Coupled Class a Power Amplifier
8. Push-Pull Amplifiers
9. Tuned Amplifiers
10. Class B and Class C Tuned Power Amplifiers
11. Amplifier Characteristics
12. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions

Chap. X : FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS :
1. Introduction
2. Transfer Gain of a Feedback Amplifier
3. Feedback Amplifier Topologies
4. Effects of Negative Feedback
5. Regulated Power Supply
6. Current Regulator
7. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XI : SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS AND MULTIVIBRATORS :
1. Classification of Oscillators
2. Basic Principle of Oscillators
3. Feedback Oscillator Concepts
4. Tuned-Collector Oscillator
5. Hartley Oscillator
6. Colpitts Oscillator
7. Phase-Shift Oscillator
8. Wien-Bridge Oscillator
9. Crystal Oscillator
10 Multivibrators
11. The 555 Ic Timer
12. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XII : MODULATION AND DEMODULATION :
1. Modulation
2. Amplitude Modulation
3. Power in Amplitude Modulated Wave
4. AM Wave Generation
5. Frequency Modulation
6. Phase Modulation
7. Generation of FM Waves
8. Demodulation
9. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XIII : FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS :
1. Introduction
2. Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)
3. Static Characteristics of JFET
4. Pinch-Off Voltage
5. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
6. Enhancement and Depletion MOSFETs
7. Static Characteristics of MOSFET
8. Biasing of FETs
9. FET Parameters
10. AC Equivalent Circuits
11. Low-Frequency Common-Source, Common-Drain, and Common-Gate FET Amplifiers
12. FET Oscillators
13. FETs and Bipolar Transistors-A Comparison
14. Comparison between Different Types of FETs
15. Power MOSFET
16. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XIV : INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS :
1. Introduction
2. Fabrication of Monolithic IC
3. Integration of Circuit Components
4. Limitations of ICs
5. Operational Amplifiers
6. Circuit of an OP AMP
7. OP AMP Applications
8. The Schmitt Trigger
9. Digital-to-Analog Converter
10. An Analog Computer
11. Function Generators
12. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XV : ACTIVE FILTERS :
1. Preliminary Ideas
2. Active Low-Pass Filter
3. Active High-Pass Filter
4. Active Band-Pass Filter
5. Active Band-Elimination Filter
6. Switched-Capacitor Filters
7. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XVI : SPECIAL Devices :
1. Phototransistors
2. Semiconductor-controlled Rectifiers
3. Triacs
4. Diacs
5. Unijunction Transistors
6. Impatt Diodes
7. Gunn Diodes
8. Pin Diodes
9. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
10. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XVII : NUMBER SYSTEMS, Boolean ALGEBRA, AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS :
1. Introduction
2. Binary Numbers
3. Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
4. Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
5. Binary Addition
6. Binary Subtraction
7. Binary Multiplication and Division
8. Octal and Hexadecimal Number Systems
9. Logic Gates
10. Boolean Algebra
11. De Morgan's Theorems
12. Some Useful Laws of Boolean Algebra
13. A Few More Logic Gates
14. Logic Circuit Implementation of Boolean Expressions
15. Karnaugh Maps
16. Binary Adders
17. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XVIII : SOME DIGITAL SYSTEMS :
1. Clock Pulse
2. Clocked RS Flip-Flop
3. JK Flip-Flop
4. Preset and Clear
5. Race-Around Condition
6. Master-Slave JK Flip-Flop
7. D-and T-Type Flip-Flops
8. Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops
9. The BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) System
10. Decoder
11. Demultiplexer
12. Encoder
13. Multiplexer
14. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
15. Registers
16. Counters
17. Seven Segment Display
18. Random-Access Memory (RAM)
19. Magnetic Memories
20. Analog-to-Digital Converter
21. Digital Voltmeters and Multimeters
22. Digital Computer
23. Microprocessor
24. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XIX. VLSI Technology AND CIRCUITS :
1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of NMOS Transistors
3. Scaling in VLSI Design
4. Stick Diagrams
5. Design Rules
6. Technological Processes in VLSI
7. Fabrication of NMOS Transistors
8. Small-Geometry Effects
9. CMOS Fabrication
10. Full-Custom and Semi-Custom Design
11. Basic Inverter
12. CMOS Inverter
13. Effect of Interconnects
14. NMOS NAND and NOR Logic Circuits
15. CMOS NAND and NOR Gates
16. Domino CMOS Logic Circuit
17. Superbuffers
18. Pass Transistors
19. Propagation Delay in a Pass-Transistor Chain
20. Cross-Coupled Inverters
21. Clocked Logic
22. Shift Register
23. Combinational Logic
24. General Logic Function Block
25. Programmable Logic Array
26. Finite State Machines
27. Charge-Coupled Devices
28. Limitations of VLSI Design
29. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XX : CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE :
1. Introduction
2. Cathode Ray Tube
3. Deflection Sensitivity
4. Waveform Display
5. A Basic Oscilloscope
6. CRO Probe
7. CRO Types
8. Applications of CRO
9. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems

Chap. XXI : COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS :
1. Radio Communication
2. Radio Transmitter
3. Antenna
4. Propagation of Radiowaves
5. Ionosphere
6. Ionospheric Influence on Radiowaves
7. Some Terms Relating to Sky-Wave Communication
8. Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation in Communication
9. Satellite Communication
10. Radio Receiver
11. Digital Communication
12. Cellular Telephone Networks
13. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problem

Chap. XXII : ELEMENTS OF Television AND RADAR :
A. Television :
1. Television System : Introductory Ideas
2. TV Camera Tubes
3. Interlaced Scanning
4. Synchronization
5. Picture Tube of TV Receiver
6. TV Channel Width
7. Colour Television

B. Radar :
8. Introduction
9. Radar Range Equation
10. Basic Pulsed Radar Set
11. Indicator
12. Uses of Radar
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions

Chap. XXXIII : LASERS, FIBRE OPTICS, AND HOLOGRAPHY :
A. Lasers :
1. Introduction
2. Salient Features of Laser Radiation
3. Einstein's A and B Coefficients
4. Laser Principle
5. Population Inversion by Pumping
6. Laser Scheme with Different Levels
7. Optical Resonators
8. Light Amplification and Threshold Condition
9. Ruby Laser
10. Helium-Neon Laser
11. Semiconductor Laser
12. Quantum-Well Laser
13. Distributed-Feedback Edge-Emitting Laser
14. Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser
15. Isotope Separation
16. Ranging

B. Fibre Optics :
17. Introduction
18. Acceptance Angle, Numerical Aperture, and Propagation of Light Through a Fibre
19. Classification of Fibres
20. Attenuation and Dispersion in Optical Fibre
21. Optical Couplers
22. Splicing
23. Fibre Sensors
24. Advantages of Fibres
25. Applications of Optical Fibres
26. Fibre Optic Communication System

C. Holography :
27. Basic Principle
28. Mathematical Analysis
29. Features of Holography
30. Uses of Holography
31. Solved Problems
Review Questions
Objective-type Questions
Answers to Objective-type Questions
Problems