About the Author
Dr. Ram Prasad is Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering at the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute, Kanpur. He received B.E. (Hons.) in Chemical Engineering from University of Roorkee and M.Tech and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. Before joining HBTI, Kanpur in 1983, he worked for about three years in I.O.C. (Refineries Division). He has contributed in Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Handbook of Piping Design and published a book on Objective Type Questions & Answers in Chemical Engineering, a Manual on Energy Conservation, and about 25 Research papers in international and national journals. His name has been included in the 9th Edition of International Directory of Distinguished Leadership, published by American Biographical Institute, Inc., Raleigh, Usa and Indian Energy Directory-2000, published by Mars Energy and Environmental Documentation & Research Academy, Indore. His present areas of Interest include Alternative Diesel Fuels, Solar Energy, Modelling & Simulation and Petroleum Refining.
Contents
I. Petroleum EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND REFINING :
1. Introduction
2. Formation of Oil and Gas
3. Oil and Gas Exploration
4. Drilling for Oil and Gas
5. Production of Crude Oil and Natural Gas
6. Petroleum Refining, Operation and Optimization :
i. Selection of Processes for Optimization
ii. Optimization in a Running Refinery
iii. Refining Capacity in India
II. CRUDE OILS-CHEMISTRY AND COMPOSITION :
1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of Crude Oils
3. Constituents of crude oils :
i. Hydrocarbons
ii. Non-Hydrocarbons
4. Classification of Crude Oils :
i. Characterization Factor
ii. Correlation Index
iii. Method of Structural Group Analysis
III. Transportation OF WAXY CRUDE OILS :
1. Introduction
2. Pipeline Transportation
3. Waxy Crude Oils
i. Definitions of Rheological Parameters
ii. Rheological Classification of Fluids
4. Flow Properties of Waxy Crude Oils
5. Pumpability Characteristics of Waxy Crude Oils :
i. Temperature
ii. Yield Stress-Model Pipeline Test
iii. Flow at Restart
iv. Effective Pipeline Viscosity
6. Methods for Pipeline Transportation of Waxy Crude Oils :
i. Use of Pour-Point Depressants/Flow Improvers
ii. Mechanism of Flow Improvement
iii. Point of Additive Injection
iv. Pour Point Reduction by Additives
v. Effect of Flow Improvers on Yield Stress and Viscosity
vi. Incorporation of Low Pour Point Crudes in Waxy Crudes
vii. Crude Oil Conditioning
IV. Quality Control OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS :
1. Introduction
2. Classification of Laboratory Tests
3. Distillation
4. Vapour Pressure
5. Flash Point and Fire Point
6. Octane Number
7. Performance Number
8. Cetane Number
9. Aniline Point
10. Diesel Index
11. Calculated Cetane Index
12. Calorific Value
13. Smoke Point
14. Char Value
15. Viscosity
16. Viscosity Index
17. Penetration Tests
18. Freezing Point
19. Cloud Point and Pour Point
20. Drop Point of Grease
21. Melting and Setting Point of Wax
22. Softening Point of Bitumen
23. Induction Period of Gasoline
24. Thermal Stability of Jet Fuels
25. Gum Content
26. Total Sulphur
27. Acidity and Alkalinity
28. Copper-Strip Corrosion Test
29. Silver-Strip Corrosion Test for Aviation Turbine Fuels
30. Ash
31. Carbon Residue :
i. Conradson Method
ii. Ramsbottom Method
32. Colour
33. Density and Specific Gravity
34. Gas Chromatography of Petroleum Gases and Liquids
35. Refractive Index of Hydrocarbon Liquids
36. Lead in Gasoline
37. Water Separometer Index (Modified) (Wsim)
38. Ductility
V. PETROLEUM PRODUCTS :
1. Liquefied Petroluem Gases :
i. Composition of LPG
ii. Properties of LPG
iii. Production of LPG
iv. Uses of LPG
2. Naphthas :
i. Methods of Manufacture of Naphthas
ii. Composition of Naphthas
iii. Uses of Naphthas
3. Motor Spirit :
i. Spark-Ignition Engine
ii. Composition of Gasolines
iii. Properties of Gasolines
iv. Types of Additives Used in Gasolines
v. New Gasoline Blending Components
vi. Alternative Gasoline Fuels
4. Kerosine :
i. Manufacture of Kerosines
ii. Composition of Kerosines
iii. Properties of Kerosines
iv. Uses of Kerosines
5. Aviation Turbine Fuels :
i. Composition of ATFs
ii. Properties of ATFs
iii. ATF Additives
iv. Storage and Handling Problems
6. Diesel Fuels :
i. Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engine
ii. Composition of Diesel Fuels
iii. Properties of Diesel Fuels
iv. Additives for Diesel Fuels
v. Alternative Diesel Fuels
7. Fuel Oils :
i. Nature and Composition of Fuel Oils
ii. Properties of Fuel Oils
iii. Combustion of Fuel Oils
iv. Burners-Characteristics and Applications
v. Storage, Handling and Preparation of Fuel Oils
8. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Solvents :
i. Composition of Hydrocarbon Solvents
ii. Classification of Hydrocarbon Solvents
iii. Manufacture of Hydrocarbon Solvents
iv. Properties of Hydrocarbon Solvents
v. Uses of Hydrocarbon Solvents
9. Lubricating Oils :
i. Mineral Oil-Based Lubricants
ii. Synthetic Lubricants
iii. Basic Functions of Lubricants
iv. Automotive Engine Oils
v. Industrial Lubricating Oils
vi. Electrical Insulating Oils
vii. Jute Batching Oils
viii. White Oils
ix. Steam Turbine Oils
x. Metal Working Oils
xi. Miscellaneous Oils
10. Petroleum Waxes :
i. Types of Petroleum Waxes
ii. Properties of Petroleum Waxes
iii. Manufacture of Petroleum Waxes
iv. Uses of Petroleum Waxes
v. Quality Requirements-Industry-wise/End-use wise
11. Bitumens :
i. Asphalts
ii. Petroleum Bitumens
iii. Quality Specifications of Bitumens
iv. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Bitumens
v. Uses of Bitumens
12. Petroleum Coke :
i. Types of Petroleum Cokes
ii. Properties of Petroleum Cokes
iii. Storage and Transportation of Petroleum Cokes
iv. Uses of Petroleum Cokes
VI. CRUDE OIL Distillation :
1. Introduction
2. Impurities in Crude Oils
3. Need for Desalting of Crude Oils
4. Electrical Desalting of Crude Oils :
i. Process Description
ii. Process Variables
iii. Typical Operating Conditions
5. Crude Oil Distillation
6. Atmospheric Distillation of Crude Oil :
i. Process Description
ii. Prefractionation
iii. Typical Yield Pattern
7. Vacuum Distillation of Reduced Crude Oil :
i. Process Description
8. Operation of Fractionating Columns :
i. Temperature
ii. Column Pressure
iii. Flow Rates
iv. Reflux
v. Reboiler/Stripping Steam
vi. Stability of Column Operation
9. Improvements in Fractionating Columns
VII. THERMAL CONVERSION PROCESSES :
1. Introduction
2. Thermal Cracking Reactions
3. Thermal Cracking :
i. Process Description
ii. Typical Operating Conditions
iii. Typical Yield Pattern
4. Visbreaking
5. Conventional Visbreaking :
i. Process Description
ii. Process Variables
iii. Typical Operating Conditions
iv. Typical Yield Pattern
v. Decoking of Furnace Tubes
vi. Maximization of Diesel Oil Production
6. Soaker Visbreaking :
i. Conventional Soaker Visbreaking
ii. High Conversion Soaker Visbreaking
7. Coking
8. Delayed Coking :
i. Process Description
ii. Process Variables
iii. Typical Operating Conditions
iv. Typical Yield Pattern
v. Needle Coke Processing
9. Fluid Coking :
i. Process Description
ii. Typical Operating Conditions
iii. Typical Yield Pattern
10. Flexicoking :
i. Process Description
ii. Dual Gasification Flexicoking Process
iii. Comparison of Conventional and Dual Gasification Processes
11. Other Coking Processes
12. Calcination of Green Coke :
i. Process Description
ii. Typical Calcination Data
VIII. CATALYTIC CONVERSION PROCESSES :
1. Introduction
2. Fluid Catalytic Cracking :
i. Development of Fluid Catalytic Cracking
ii. Technological Aspects of Fluid Catalytic Cracking
iii. Principles of Operation
iv. Process Description
v. Process Variables-Reactor Section
vi. Process Variables-Regeneration Section
vii. Feedstock Characteristics
viii. Typical Operating Conditions
ix. Typical Yield Pattern
3. Catalytic Reforming :
i. Reforming Reactions
ii. Reforming Catalysts
iii. Process Description
iv. Process Variables
v. Typical Operating Conditions
vi. Typical Yields and Product Quality
vii. Pretreatment of Catalytic Reformer Feedstocks
viii. Catalytic Reforming For Aromatics Production
4. Hydrocracking :
i. Applications of Hydrocracking
ii. Types of Hydrocracking
iii. Hydrocracking Reactions
iv. Hydrocracking Catalysts
v. Process Description
vi. Typical Operating Conditions
vii. Typical Yield Pattern
5. Catalytic Alkylation :
i. Alkylation Reactions
ii. H2SO4 Alkylation Processes
iii. HF Alkylation Processes
iv. Process Variables
v. Typical Operating Conditions
vi. Comparison of H2SO4 and HF Alklation Processes
6. Catalytic Isomerization :
i. Chemistry and Catalysts of the Process
ii. UOP Butamer Isomerization Process
iii. UOP Penex Process
7. Catalytic Polymerization :
i. Chemistry and Catalysts of the Process
ii. UOP Catalytic Polymerization Process
iii. IFF Dimersol Process
IX. FINISHING PROCESSES :
1. Introduction
2. Hydrogen Sulphide Removal Processes :
i. Absorption by Regenerative Solvents
ii. Adsorption on Solid Beds
3. Sulphur Conversion Processes :
i. Claus Process
ii. Selective Oxidation Processes
iii. Wet Oxidation Based on Aqueous Solutions
iv. Thermal Cracking of H2S
4. Sweetening Processes :
i. Caustic Treatment
ii. Solutizer Process
iii. Doctor Treating Process
iv. Copper Chloride Sweetening
v. Hypochlorite Sweetening
vi. Air and Inhibitor Treating Process
vii. Merox Processes
viii. Sulphuric Acid Treatment
ix. Clay Treatment
5. Solvent Extraction Processes :
i. Edeleanu Process
ii. Udex Process
iii. Sulfolane Process
6. Hydrotreating Processes :
i. Applications of Hydrotreating
ii. Hydrotreating Reactions
iii. Hydrotreating Process for Distillate Desulphurization
iv. Hydrotreating Process for Smoke Point Improvement
X. LUBE OIL Manufacturing PROCESSES :
1. Introduction
2. Evaluation of Crude Oils for Lube Oil Base Stocks Manufacture
3. Vacuum Distillation :
i. Process Description
ii. Typical Operating Conditions
iii. Typical Yield Pattern and Product Quality
4. Solvent Deasphalting Process :
i. Process Description
ii. Process Variables
iii. Typical Operating Conditions
iv. Typical Yield Pattern and Feed/Product Quality
5. Solvent Extraction of Lube Oil Fractions :
i. Comparison of Furfural, NMP and Phenol
ii. Process Description
iii. Typical Operating Conditions
iv. Typical Yield Pattern and Feed/Product Quality
6. Solvent Dewaxing Process :
i. Process Description
ii. Typical Operating Conditions
iii. Typical Yield Pattern and Feed/Product Quality
7. Hydrofinishing Process :
i. Process Descrition
ii. Typical Operating Conditions
iii. Feed and Product Quality
8. Manufacture of Petroleum Waxes
9. Wax Sweating-principles and Applications
10. Solvent Deoiling :
i. Fundamentals of Solvent Deoiling
ii. Process Description
iii. Process Variables
iv. Typical Operating Conditions
v. Finishing of Waxes
XI. MANUFACTURE OF BITUMENS :
1. Introduction
2. Selection of Crude Oil
3. Methods of Manufacture of Bitumens :
i. Distillation
ii. Solvent Precipitation
iii. Air Blowing
4. Air Blowing Process :
i. Process Description
ii. Process Variables
iii. Typical Operating Conditions
5. Typical Refinery Production :
i. Cutback Bitumens
ii. Bitumen Emulsions
6. Handling and Distribution
XII. CORROSION CONTROL IN REFINING PROCESSES :
1. Types of Corrosion
2. Forms of Corrosion
3. Corrosion Control in Crude Oil Distillation :
i. Atmospheric Distillation
ii. Vacuum Distillation
4. Corrosion Control in Thermal Cracking
5. Corrosion Control in Fluid Catalytic Cracking
6. Corrosion and Cracking in amine gas Processing :
i. Corrosivity of Amine Systems
7. Corrosion Control in Steam and Condensate Lines :
i. Causes of Corrosion
ii. Corrosion Control Through Use of Chemicals
8. Corrosion from Combustion Products
XIII. Environmental Pollution Control in Petroleum Refineries :
1. Introduction
2. Air Pollution :
i. Air Pollutants from Refining Operations
ii. Emissions from Refineries
iii. Air Pollution Control Techniques and Options
iv. Standards for Gaseous Emissions
3. Water Pollution :
i. Pollutional Effects of Wastewaters
ii. Types of Water Pollution
iii. Control of Water Pollution in Refineries
iv. Standards for Discharge of Effluent Water
4. Sludge Treatment and Disposal :
i. Sludge Characteristics
ii. Sludge Conditioning
iii. Thickening of Sludges
iv. Dewatering of Sludges
v. Oil and Hazardous Waste Separation from Sludges
vi. Sludge Disposal
XIV. DESIGN AND OPERATION OF PETROLEUM PROCESSING EQUIPMENTS :
1. Design of Atmospheric Crude Distillation Column :
i. Calculation Procedure
2. Design of Vacuum Distillation Column :
i. Flash Zone Conditions
ii. Calculation Procedure
3. Process Fired Heaters :
i. General Description of Fired Heaters